A Cosmopolitan Era

The Hellenistic Age (323-31 BCE) marks the transformation of Greek society from the localized and introverted city-states to an open, cosmopolitan, and at times exuberant culture that permeated the entire eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, and Southwest Asia. The autonomous cities of the Classical era gave way to the will of the large kingdoms that were led by one ruler.

While the Hellenistic world incorporated a number of different people, Greek thinking, mores, and way of life dominated the public affairs of the time. All aspects of culture took a Greek hue, with the Greek language being established as the official language of the Hellenistic world.

The art and literature of the era were transformed accordingly. Instead of the previous preoccupation with the “Ideal”, Hellenistic art focused on the “real”. Depictions of man in both art and literature revolved around exuberant, and often amusing themes that for the most part explored the daily life and the emotional world of humans, gods, and heroes alike.

The Division of Empire

As Alexander the Great left no apparent heir after his conquest of the Persian Empire and death, his generals divided the conquered lands into kingdoms that spanned an area from Greece to the edge of the Hindu Kush (know the the Greeks as Caucasus Indicus). For centuries, they fought common enemies and against each other as they attempted to establish their power, and eventually, three major kingdoms emerged through the strife that followed the death of Alexander in 323 BCE and persisted for the most part over the next three hundred years.

Egypt and parts of the Middle East came under the rule of Ptolemy, Seleucus controlled Syria and the remnants of the Persian Empire, while Macedonia, Thrace, and parts of northern Asia Minor came under the hegemony of Antigonus and his son Demetrius.

Several smaller kingdoms were established at various times, in Hellenistic Greece.

In Asia Minor, the Attalid kingdom and the Kindom of Pontus (281–62 BCE) were established around Pergamum and the southern shores of the Black Sea respectively.

The independent Kingdom of Bactria was created after Diodotos I, the satrap of Bacria at the time, led a rebellion against Seleucid rule in 256–250 BCE in what’s today the countries of Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.

Following the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, the Greko-Bacrian king Demetrius I invaded Northern India and established the Indo-Greek kingdom in 185 BCE.

Very few cities took advantage of their strategic location to remain independent sovereign players during the Hellenistic Era: Rhodes, Byzantium, Cyzicus.

Most city-states of classical Greece remained independent, but under the watch of Macedonian garrisons. Athens lost it’s political and military power but remained a vital cultural and educational capital. Sparta was forced to join the Achaean League despite its dogged resistance. Given its strategic location, Corinth was contested by both the Achaean League and the Macedonians who eventually established a stronghold in Acrocorinth and controlled it henceforth. Corcyra (Κέρκυρα, known today as Corfu) was largely independent under the control of Syracuse who later passed it to the king Pyrrhus. It was later conquered by Illyrian pirates who disrupted the shipping lanes between Italy and Greece, giving Rome the perfect excuse to begin interfering in Greek affairs. Following its total destruction by Alexander the Great in 335 BCE, Thebes was rebuilt by Cassander in 316 BCE, but it never regained its status as a sovereign superpower.

The old Greek city-states west of the Pindus mountain range and north of the Ambracian Gulf (what’s today the province of Epirus and southern Albania) formed the Kingdom of Epirus which flourished under king Pyrrhus (306–272 BCE). Western Greece south of the Ambracian Gulf formed the “Achaean League” in 243 BCE.

Cities of Magna Graecia (Μεγάλη Ελλάδα) in Sicily and Souther Italy, along with Greek city-states in the easter Mediterranean, Libya, and in the Black Sea (Euxinus Pontus; Εὔξεινος Πόντος) remained independent and flourished during the Hellenistic era, but successive conflicts gradually made them subjects to the emerging powers of Carthage and the Roman Republic. The latter eventually conquered all Carthaginian and Greek lands on their way to establishing the Roman Empire.

Miletus, and Syracuse continued to flourish, while others emerged as major centers of Hellenic culture throughout the kingdoms. Pergamum, Ephesus, Antioch, Damascus, and Trapezus are few of the cities whose reputations have survived to our day.

None were more influential than Alexandria of Egypt however. Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great himself in 331 BCE and very quickly became the center of commerce and culture of the Hellenistic world under the Ptolemies. Alexandria hosted the tomb of Alexander the Great, and the Pharos (lighthouse) of Alexandria, listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The famed Library of Alexandria aspired to host the entire knowledge of the known world in its shelves, requiring all docking ships to provide their books for copying.

In the Hellenistic Era and for centuries afterward, Alexandria was a major conduit through which Greek knowledge (e.g. science, philosophy, and literature), along with the recorded texts of other ancient cultures spread their influence to the subsequent empires that conquered it.

Rich Culture and Science

Many famous thinkers and artists of the Hellenistic era created works that remained influential for centuries. Schools of thought like the Stoics, the Skeptics, and the Epicurians continued the substantial philosophical tradition of Greece, while art, literature, and poetry reached new heights of innovation and development through the work of Kalimachus, Apollonious of Rhodes, Menander, and Theocritos.

Great works of art were created during the Hellenistic Era. The sculptures and canons of Polykleitos remained influential and were copied throughout the Hellenistic and Roman Eras, and even centuries later during the Italian Renaissance.

In Architecture, the classical styles were further refined and augmented with new ideas like the Corinthian order (first seen in the Temple of Apollo in Bassae in the Classical Era), which was first used on an exterior on the Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens. Public buildings and monuments were constructed on larger scale in more ambitious configuration and complexity. The Mausoleum of Pergamum, merged architectural space and sculpture by the placement of heroic statues in the close proximity of a grand staircase.

Hellenistic Greece became a time of substantial maturity of the sciences. In geometry, Euclid’s elements became the standard all the way up to the 20th c. CE., and the work of Archimedes on mathematics along with his practical inventions became influential and legendary.

Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth within 1500 miles by simultaneously measuring the shadow of two vertical sticks placed one in Alexandria and one in Syene. The fact that the earth was a sphere was common knowledge in the Hellenistic world.

Conflicts and Strife

The Hellenistic age was characterized by constant conflict, even after the major kingdoms were established. Challenges to the Hellenistic kingdoms appeared from both internal and new external enemies.

The size of the empire made securing it next to impossible, and life outside the orderly large cities was filled with danger from bandits and pirates. Internal strife and revolutions caused the borders of the kingdoms to be shifted several times as the rulers of the major and minor kingdoms engaged in continuous fighting with many of the rulers, like Mithridates VI Eupator (or Mithridates the Great), dreamed of repeating Alexander the Great’s epic conquests and fought against other Greek kingdoms and against increasing Roman incursions into Asia Minor and the Black Sea.

At the same time serious threats to the Hellenistic world came from external threats. A Celtic people, the Gauls invaded Macedonia and reached southern Greece in 279 BCE attempting to plunder the treasure of Delphi, which was miraculously saved (Pausanias, 20). Eventually, Attalus defeated the Gauls after they crossed into Asia Minor.

The Rise of Rome

At the time of Hellenistic Era, Rome had risen to a formidable power and by 200 BCE occupied not only Italy, but also the entire coastal Adriatic Sea and Illyria.

During the second Punic War (218 – 201 BCE) when Hannibal of Carthage managed to establish a successful campaign against the Romans in Italy, Philip V of Macedon allied with him and annexed Illyria, starting thus a series of wars with Rome that led to the eventual annexation of Greece by the Romans.

In the end, large part of the Hellenistic kingdoms disintegrated by constant incursions by tribes of the fringes, many parts were simply given to Rome through the will of deceased rulers, and others won brief independence by revolution.

In 31 BCE Octavian (later Augustus) defeated the rulers of Egypt Anthony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium in Epirus, and completed the demise of the Hellenistic Era.

The battle of Actium is considered the pivotal moment that defines the end of Ancient Greece. After the battle of Actium, the entire Hellenic world became subject to Rome. Greece in the next two thousand years was to undergo a series of conquests that made its people subjects of numerous powers and did not gain its self-determination until the 19th century CE.

But ancient Greek civilization continued to be influential in the arts and the letters, well into the 20th century and beyond.